Chapter 2 is aimed at providing the whole theoretical support, by the definition of the two constructs in which this action research project is set: basic subskills in writing descriptive paragraphs and the use of Practicing Naturalisticaly as an introductory and contextualizing learning strategy to accelerate the writing process in the L2 false beginners.
The Descriptive Paragraph
The basic writing model that a language learner should know and be able to create is the descriptive paragraph, since it allows the writer to express what he observed around, his nearer space. Writing at the level of a descriptive paragraph does not necessairy demand a propositional level of analysis but the ability to present evidences of facts by providing most of details to define and give characteristics of them (2008: 52).
Hollowell (2010) defines a descriptive paragraph as ‘a piece of writing intended to convey meaning to the reader through sensory details’. For Beare (2010), descriptive paragraphs are used to describe what a person, object or place look and act like. Both authors agree that this is not the only role of descriptive paragraphs, because they can describe several objects and events providing the reader with multiple descriptive elements that promote real or virtual imagery. Przybyla (2009) suggests that, descriptive paragraphs provide a ‘comprehensive background’ in any other field of writing, as this very specific type of writing provides the definition for the context, the objects, subjects and events presented throughout the text, giving them the main and ‘crucial’ functions that define / specify the context in which all events appear. She adds that descriptive paragraphs are detailed and appear as to provide the relevant information that qualifies and gives particular characteristics to any situation.
The Structure of Descriptive Paragraphs
Murray and Hughes (2008: 53) also state that it is not always evident when one paragraph ends and the next one begins since the writer’s style allows a certain freedom to deliberately organize and separate ideas. However, each well elaborated paragraph must consist of a topic sentence that indicates the main subject, focus or point of interest. If this main idea appears at the beginning of the paragraph, evidently the writer is clearly stating that the reader can identify the topic. However, the topic sentence may appear at the end of the paragraph, which suggests the reader a sense of expectation that demands from him the task of guessing what the main subject is. This main topic sentence stated in the introductory paragraph presents the main idea of a complete descriptive text. Accompanying the topic sentence, a number of supporting ideas must provide detailed information across the development or developmentl paragraphs, whose purpose is to give the reader a very clear picture of the elements being described. These supporting ideas are, according to Murray and Hughes (59), particularly important in academic writing and are the corpus of the development paragraphs that justify or entail the topic sentence of the introductory paragraph. Providing details, justifications, explananatory ideas or exemplifications, development or developmental paragraphs are used to widen the description. Finally, an ending or conclusion paragraph, that according to Murray and Hughes (60) are often confused with a summary by the writers and readers, must provide a final comment that invites the reader to generate an attitude towards the information provided. In order to clearly define a conclusion paragraph, it is necessary to make the distinction between summaries and conclusions. A summary simply ‘restates, in condensed form, key information presented in the body of the writing. A conclusion considers that information and comments on it…’ Conclusions show the relevance and significance of the information presented accross the body of the text, the way of getting ideas together with a purpose for the reader, that may be observe, recreate, analyze, reconsider, critizise, and anyhow get involved into the writing process.
Learning Strategies
Following Richards and Platt (1992), learning strategies are defined as “intentional behaviors and thoughts used by learners during learning so as to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information.” Chamot and Kupper (1989) call them ‘techniques’ used by the learner, that neither usually nor directly become observable but through the analytical performance of the learner. Stern (1992) sustains that learning strategies may be the “intentional directions and learning techniques” the learner consciously engage with when he wants to achieve very specific purposes. Learning strategies are recognized according with the degree of effectiveness raised when a learner deals properly with a specific task.- They refer to specific actions or techniques to be used by the learner: They are not an approach.
- They may be or not observable.
- They may be consciously or unconsciously acquired, do that they may become automated.
- They are problem oriented. They are used by the learner ‘to facilitate the acquisition, storage, retrieval or use of information.’
- They are used regarding the language learning behavior that “contribute directly to learning”
Because the learner takes on specific actions to improve their learning process, they are critical and consist of tools for self-directed involvement, essential in the development of the communicative competence. The use of the correct learning strategies brings about proficiency and self confidence. These actions make learning easier, faster and more enjoyable, more self directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations.
Cognitive Strategies
The Cognitive Strategies are aimed at manipulating and transforming the target language by the learner. According to Oxford (1990), they are the most popular strategies with language learners. Practicing strategies are the most important cognitive strategies. Language learners do not often realize how important practice is when learning a language; that’s why the practicing strategies – including repeating, formally practicing with sounds and writing systems, recognizing and using formulas and patterns, recombining, and practicing naturalistically – take on special value. Derived from the domain of Practicing cognitive learning strategies are recombination and practicing naturalistically:
Practicing Naturalistically | 1. Repeating Saying or doing something over and over: listening to something several times, rehearsing; imitating a native speaking. |
2. Formally Practicing with Sounds and Writing Systems Practicing sounds (pronunciation, intonation, register, etc.) in a variety of ways, but not yet in naturalistic communicative practice, or practicing the new writing system of the target language. | |
3. Recognizing and using Formulas and Patterns Being aware of and/or using routine formulas (single, analyzed units), such as “Hello, how are you?”; (and unanalyzed patterns which have at least one slot to be filled), such as, “it’s time to_____.” | |
4. Recombining Combining known elements in new ways to produce a longer sequence, as in linking one phrase with another in a whole sentence. | |
5. Practicing Naturalistically Practicing the new language in natural, realistic settings, as in participating in a conversation, reading a book or article, listening to a lecture, or writing a letter in the new language. |
Table (Oxford, 1999)
Practicing Naturalistically
Practicing Naturalistically is practicing the new language in natural, realistic settings, as in participating in a conversation, reading a book or article, listening to a lecture, or writing a letter in the new language (Oxford: 46). An initial naturalistic writing stage should be the individual creation of separate pieces of outcomes, which may include autobiographical sketches, interviews with relatives and acquaintances, poems, stories, factual reports, diary entries, recipes, shopping lists, and any other outcomes produced in a natural way. Length can vary from a single sentence to pages, which means the language proficiency level goes from the very beginners.
Oxford suggests PN as the opportunity the learner has to meaningfully practice the target language (p. 86), for which Harmer (1998), Kilickaya (2004) and Budden (2011), among several authors, supply lots of examples under the name of realia to refer to every object or artifact taken or produced from the real context, that can provoque the practice of the target language in a naturalistic way, because it is able to generate enough impact in the learners as to encourage them to use real language. The term realia formally appeared for the first time in education in 1960 by Morthole, and included timetables, recipes, calendars, agendas, maps, postcards, among other valuable authentic materials. Its authentic value may be perfectly adapted, as suggested by Oxford, not only to to introduce the language to the learner as its recipient, but to encourage his creativity as the sender of the message. The meaningful value of writing through PN, as a possibility for the learner to generate authentic materials, lies in the innumerable chances he is given to produce a message as an actor and a creator, always aware of the communicative functions of the language and of his active role as the sender in this communicative process (Jakobson: 1960, cited by Hebert: 2011).
PN as a learning strategy and realia are closely related in the classroom as fundamental elements of the communicative approach (Nunan, 1989), since they allow the learner to play the starring subject in the learning process, using his own knowledge and being assessed in terms of communication, PN promotes the contextualizing meaning of the language, not as a simple set of gramatical rules to evaluate the learner, but as a communicative entity that conveys an alive relationship of the learner with lots of cultural aspects involving both the target language and the language of the learner.
In LSU setting, most of the English program in all the levels is intended to develop communication and language proficiency. The Department of Foreign Languages and Cultures promotes the legal use of authentic resources at hand, from printed to audiovisual materials taken from approved websites specialized in providing realia. In addition to the teachers resourcefulness, own productions and physical library features, most of the web resources supply the teaching practice especially in the preparation for the enhancement of the receptive skills at all levels from introductory to exams preparation. Nevertheless, specific resources for writing are generally academic and include thousands of resources for language learning at the higher levels, especially regarding training for international profiency tests. They include essays, articles and reports which perfectly match the intermediate and advanced levels. Lower levels such as the beginning courses lack this possibility to find more adaptable authentic materials, because, as stated by Richards (2001, cited by Kilickaya: 2005), they usually contain more complex grammar structures and lots of unnecessary vocabulary, and are difficult to decode in terms of the new language learner communicative needs. So, teachers usually need to generate authentic materials that address the communicative competence and convey the linguistic requirements at the basic levels through simpler target language. Because PN and realia promote the development of the new language through natural settings, in the productive skills it is important to provoque in the learner the need for using this new language (Shananhan: 1997), by exposing him to cultural contents in which the language is alive and eager to be not only identified but expressed.
According to Stuart and Nocon (1996, cited by Kilickaya: 2005), learning about the target language culture as well as “about one’s culture requires tools that assist language learners in negotiating meaning and understanding the communicative and cultural texts in which linguistic codes are used”. For McKay (2003), culture not only affects the semantic, pragmatic and discourse levels of the language, but also operates in a pedagogical sense in three dimensions according to the source of the materials: target culture, mother or source culture and international target culture. It operates in the source culture dimension since the learner develops abilities to learn about, express and let know his own culture through the target language learning process. One of the main purposes of the DFLC is providing the learner with tools to develop sense of identity and autonomy. Bearing in mind this aim, the researcher analysed the feasibility of promoting it through the elaboration of authentic materials by the group studied, following Oxford’s PN strategy, as a great opportunity to enhance the writing skill, by means of negotiating meaningful language and content with learners, while allowing them to communicate their own ideas and culture by writing descriptive paragraphs so that they can feel writing as a productive enriching and valuable skill that will help them rapidly enhance the communicative competence.
Oxford suggests using PN in three stages according to the learners’ level of language. Appropriate models to geenrate an initial naturalistic writing stage should be the individual creation of separate pieces of outcomes, which may include autobiographical sketches, interviews with relatives and acquaintances, poems, stories, factual reports, diary entries, recipes, shopping lists, and any other outcomes produced in a natural way. Length can vary from a single sentence to pages, which means that the language level can improve from the very beginners to the most proficient learners.
